Modern | World History

Key Concept 5.1 Industrialization & Global Capitalism

Industrialization fundamentally altered the production of goods around the world. It not only changed how goods were produced and consumed, as well as what was considered a “good,” but it also had far-reaching effects on the global economy, social relations, and culture. Although it is common to speak of an “Industrial Revolution,” the process of industrialization was a gradual one that unfolded over the course of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, eventually becoming global.

I. Industrialization fundamentally changed how goods were produced.

B. The development of machines, including steam engines and the internal combustion engine, made it possible to exploit vast new resources of energy stored in fossil fuels, specifically coal and oil. The “fossil fuels” revolution greatly increased the energy available to human societies.

C. The development of the factory system concentrated labor in a single location and led to an increasing degree of specialization of labor.

D. As the new methods of industrial production became more common in parts of northwestern Europe, they spread to other parts of Europe and the United States, Russia, and Japan.

E. The “second industrial revolution” led to new methods in the production of steel, chemicals, electricity and precision machinery during the second half of the nineteenth century.

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II. New patterns of global trade and production developed and further integrated the global economy as industrialists sought raw materials and new markets for the increasing amount and array of goods produced in their factories.

A. The need for raw materials for the factories and increased food supplies for the growing population in urban centers led to the growth of export economies around the world that specialized in mass producing single natural resources. The profits from these raw materials were used to purchase finished goods.

B. The rapid development of industrial production contributed to the decline of economically productive, agriculturally based economies.

C. The rapid increases in productivity caused by industrial

production encouraged industrialized states to seek out

new consumer markets for their finished goods.

D. The need for specialized and limited metals for industrial

production, as well as the global demand for gold, silver and

diamonds as forms of wealth, led to the development of

extensive mining centers.

Example of mining centers:
• Copper mines in Mexico • Gold and diamond mines in South Africa

III. To facilitate investments at all levels of industrial production, financiers developed and expanded various financial institutions.

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A. The ideological inspiration for economic changes lies in the development of capitalism and classical liberalism associated with Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill.

B. The global nature of trade and production contributed to the proliferation of large scale transnational businesses (such as bicycle tires, the United Fruit Company or the HSBC-Hong Kong & Shanghai Banking Corporation).

C. The ideological inspiration for these financial changes lie in the development of laissez-faire capitalism and economic liberalism associated with Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill.

IV. There were major developments in transportation and communication including railroads, steamships,

telegraphs and canals.

V. The development and spread of global capitalism led to a variety of responses.

A. In industrialized states, many workers organized themselves to improve working conditions, limit hours, and gain higher wages, while others opposed capitalist exploitation of workers by promoting alternative visions of society.

B. In Qing China and the Ottoman Empire, some members of the government resisted economic change and attempted to maintain pre-industrial forms of economic production.

C. In a small number of states, governments

promoted their own state-sponsored visions

of industrialization

(Economic reforms of Meiji Japan,

Developments of factories and railroads in Tsarist Russia, Muhammad Ali's development of cotton textile industry in Egypt)

D. In response to criticisms of industrial global capitalism, some governments mitigated the negative effects of industrial capitalism by promoting various types of reforms.

Examples of reforms:
• State pensions and public health in Germany
• Expansion of suffrage in Britain
• Public education in many states

VI. The ways in which people organized themselves into societies also underwent significant transformations in industrialized states due to the fundamental restructuring of the global economy.

A. New social classes, including the middle class and the industrial working class, developed.

B. Family dynamics, gender roles and demographics changed in response to industrialization.

C. Rapid urbanization that accompanied global capitalism often led to unsanitary conditions, as well as to new forms of community.

Key Concept 5.2. Imperialism and Nation-State Formation

As states industrialized during this period, they also expanded their existing overseas colonies and established new types of colonies and transoceanic empires. Regional warfare and diplomacy both resulted in and were affected by this process of modern empire building. The process was led mostly by Europe, although not all states were affected equally, which led to an increase of European influence around the world. The United States and Japan also participated in this process. The growth of new empires challenged the power of existing land-based empires of Eurasia. New ideas about nationalism, race, gender, class, and culture also developed that facilitated the spread of transoceanic empires, as well as justified anti-imperial resistance and the formation of new national identities.

C. Many European states used both warfare and diplomacy to establish empires in Africa.
• Britain in West Africa • Belgium in the Congo

D. In some parts of their empires, Europeans established settler colonies.
• The British in southern Africa, Australia, and New Zealand • The French in Algeria

E. In other parts of the world, industrialized states practiced economic imperialism.
• The British and French expanding their influence in China through the Opium Wars • The British and the United States investing heavily in Latin America

I. Industrializing powers established transoceanic empires.

A. States with existing colonies strengthened their control over those colonies.
• British in India • Dutch in Indonesia

B. European states, as well as the Americans and the Japanese, established empires throughout Asia and the Pacific, while Spanish and Portuguese influence declined.
• British • Dutch • French • German • Russian

II. Imperialism influenced state formation and contraction around the world.

A. The expansion of U.S. and European influence over Tokugawa Japan led to the emergence of Meiji Japan.

B. The United States and Russia emulated European transoceanic imperialism by expanding their land borders and conquering neighboring territories.

C. Anti-imperial resistance led to the contraction of the Ottoman Empire.
• The establishment of independent states in the Balkans • Semi-independence in Egypt, French and Italian colonies in North Africa • Later British influence in Egypt

D. New states developed on the edges of existing empires.
• The Cherokee Nation • Siam • Hawai’i • The Zulu Kingdom

E. The development and spread of nationalism as an ideology fostered new communal identities.
• The German nation • Filipino nationalism • Liberian nationalism

III. In some imperial socieites, emergin cultural religious and racial ideologies, including Social Darwinism, were used to justify imperialism.

Key Concept 5.3. Nationalism, Revolution, and Reform

The eighteenth century marked the beginning of an intense period of revolution and rebellion against existing governments, and the establishment of new nation-states around the world. Enlightenment thought and the resistance of colonized peoples to imperial centers shaped this revolutionary activity. These rebellions sometimes resulted in the formation of new states and stimulated the development of new ideologies. These new ideas in turn further stimulated the revolutionary and anti-imperial tendencies of this period.

I. The rise and diffusion of Enlightenment thought that questioned established traditions in all areas of life often preceded the revolutions and rebellions against existing governments.

A. Thinkers (such as Voltaire or Rousseau) applied new ways of understanding the natural world to human relationships, encouraging observation and inference in all spheres of life.

B. Intellectuals critiqued the role that religion played in public life, insisting on the importance of reason as opposed to revelation

C. Enlightenment thinkers (such as Locke or Montesquieu) developed new political ideas about the individual, natural rights and the social contract.

D. They also challenged existing notions of social relations which led to the expansion of rights as seen in expanded suffrage, the abolition of slavery and the end of serfdom as their ideas were implemented.

Enlightenment Literature

II. Beginning in the eighteenth century, peoples around the world developed a new sense of commonality based on language, religion, social customs and territory. These newly imagined national communities linked this identity with the borders of the state, while governments used this idea to unite diverse populations.

III. Increasing discontent with imperial rule and the spread of Enlightenment ideas propelled reformist and revolutionary movements.

A. Subjects challenged the centralized imperial governments (such as the Wahhabi rebellion against the Ottomans or the challenge of the Marathas to the Mughal Sultans)

B. American colonial subjects led a series of rebellions which facilitated the emergence of independent states in the United States, Haiti and mainland Latin America. French subjects rebelled against their monarchy. These revoluts generally attempted to put the Enlightenment’s political theory into practice. Evidence of this can be found in the American Declaration of Independence, the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen or Bolivar’s Jamaica Letter.

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C. Slave resistance (such as the establishment of Maroon societies) challenged existing authorities in the Americas (such as in Brazil, Cuba or the Guyanas).

D. Increasing questions about political authority and growing nationalism contributed to anti-colonial movements (such as the Indian Revolt of 1857 or the Boxer Rebellion).

E. Some of the rebellions were influenced by religious ideas and millenarianism, (such as the Taiping Rebellion, the Ghost Dance or the Xhosa cattle killing).

F. Responses to increasingly frequent rebellions led to reforms in imperial policies (such as the Tanzimat movement or the Self-Strengthening Movement).

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IV. The global spread of European political and social thought and the increasing number of

rebellions stimulated new transnational ideologies and solidarities.

A. Discontent with monarchist and imperial rule encouraged the development of political

ideologies including liberalism, socialism and communism.

B. Demands for women’s suffrage and an emergent feminism challenged political and gender

hierarchies (such as Mary Wollstonecraft’s “A Vindication of the Rights of Women,”

Olympe de Gouges’ “Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen” or the

resolutions passed at the Seneca Falls Conference in 1848).

Key Concept 5.4. Global Migration

Migration patterns changed dramatically throughout this period, and the numbers of migrants increased significantly. These changes were closely connected to the development of transoceanic empires and a global capitalist economy. In some cases, people benefited economically from migration, while other people were seen simply as commodities to be transported. In both cases, migration produced dramatically different societies for both sending and receiving societies, and presented challenges to governments in fostering national identities and regulating the flow of people.

I. Migration in many cases was influenced by changes in demography in both industrialized and unindustrialized societies that presented challenges to existing patterns of living.

A. Changes in food production and improved medical conditions contributed to a significant global rise in population.

B. Because of the nature of the new modes of transportation, both internal and external migrants increasingly relocated to cities. This pattern contributed to the significant global urbanization of the nineteenth century.

II. Migrants relocated for a variety of reasons.

A. Many individuals (such as manual laborers or specialized professionals) chose freely to relocate, often in search of work.

B. The new global capitalist economy continued to rely on coerced and semi-coerced labor migration, including slavery, Chinese and Indian indentured servitude and convict labor.

C. While many migrants permanently relocated, a significant number of temporary and seasonal migrants returned to their home societies (such as Japanese agricultural workers in the Pacific, Lebanese merchants in the Americas or Italians in Argentina).

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III. The large-scale nature of migration, especially in the nineteenth century, produced a variety of consequences and reactions to the increasingly diverse societies on the part of migrants and the existing populations.

A. Due to the physical nature of the labor in demand, migrants tended to be male, leaving women to take on new roles in the home society that had been formerly occupied by men.

B. Migrants often created ethnic enclaves, (such as concentrations of Chinese and Indians in different parts of the world) which helped transplant their culture into new environments and facilitated the development of migrant support networks.

C. Receiving societies did not always embrace immigrants, as seen in various degrees of ethnic and racial prejudice and the ways states attempted to regulate the increased flow of people across their borders (such as the Chinese Exclusion Act or the White Australia Policy).